Radio Procedures

Call-up
A typical call-up would be as follows:
"Napa Tower Cessna 6185K Benicia at 2500 with Alpha will report left downwind for 18 requesting closed traffic with the option " (Note: All radio communication is said and written without punctuation.)

The student makes the call-up and will do all the radio work until we are downwind. Prior to solo, the instructor will do all radio work and assume all traffic responsibility. This enables the student to concentrate on his flying. It helps if this can be done at an airport that has parallel runways. Every effort should be made to do as much flying in right turns as in left turns during all instruction and practice.

The instructional practice, at all controlled airports, of having the initial radio call up include such phrases as, "request right base will report two mile base" in anticipation of the ATC clearance serves a dual purpose. It makes the student PLAN the arrival and become more sensitive to the possibility of an ATC error. An additional benefit of this instructional process is that the student can then use his knowledge of airport checkpoints for traffic awareness. An airplane reporting at a point on the other side of the airport can be virtually eliminated as a hazard, whereas your downwind entry may be in conflict with an aircraft reporting two-mile base.

It is best that the pilot operate at the informational level of aircraft communications. You can't give information if you don't know the information to give. This is the radio system that I try to teach my students. It goes beyond a mere AIM call-up by giving altitude, a request and what you expect to do. Further, my students are expected to be capable of operating at the suggestion level. This means that they are capable of making and suggesting a short approach, change runways, make 360s, extended downwind, etc. before ATC sees the need.

When arriving at a tower airport you must plan your communications both as to distance, the speed of your aircraft, and the available reporting points. The faster you are going the further out you should communicate so as to allow the controller to plan your sequence. Additional knowledge of aircraft types and relative speeds will lead to a further refinement of this skill. Usually, between 7-10 miles out from an Class D airspace will allow you time to get the ATIS, listen to tower activity, plan the most economic arrival and make your call-up. Be as exact as to location and altitude as you can. Be sure to practice before you arrive at your call-up point. The only arrival that need not be specifically requested is the downwind entry. If you do not say that you will report downwind, the controller will tell you to make such a report. If the straight in or base entry is desired, it must be requested and the tower will require a two-mile reporting point or call.

Request to overfly above pattern altitude if you are at all uncertain as to how make your entry. Perhaps the most dangerous of all flight situations is to make an airport arrival incorrectly. If you are at all uncertain, go to "slow flight" and ask for assistance from ATC. The willingness and readiness to admit the need for help and to ask for it is the ultimate sign of flying maturity. Only the incompetent pilot thinks he is supposed to know everything and is consequently reluctant to ask for help.

The pilot must be knowledgeable as to his present position in relation to the immediate and neighboring aircraft and space. You can't be comfortable on the radio until you know both what to say and when to say it. The basic principles of communications are the same everywhere in the system. It is important to practice before actually keying the microphone.

A checkpoint call-up difficulty is when there are no good (known) visual points for your call-up. Then it is necessary for the pilot to advise ATC by compass direction. FIRST, make sure the heading indicator is correctly set with the compass. THEN, locate the direction to an identifiable location such as the airport. NOW, note the opposite side of the heading indicator and the location of one or two of the letters N, S, E, W. relative to this point. If a single letter is within 10 degrees you use that letter. If this opposite point is between two of the letters you use terms such as NE, NW, SE, or SW. Do not try to please ATC by agreeing with a suggestion such as, "Are you NE of the airport?" without confirming with the heading indicator. IF YOU ARE UNCERTAIN, say so.

For differing reasons some pilots have difficulty orienting themselves. Draw a diagram of the airport with pertinent checkpoints at two and five miles. Go over the arrivals on the diagram one runway at a time. Be prepared to fly with ATC approval, a two-mile and five-mile circle around the airport at 2000' with the student. Point out the checkpoints used for arrivals for straight in, 45's to downwind, and base entries to the various runways.

The position of the runway number on the heading indicator should be taught as an indicator to runway arrival. For a downwind 45-degree entry, with the aircraft pointing toward the landing end of the runway, the number of the runway will be at the right or left rear 45-degree mark on the heading indicator. For a base entry the number of the runway will be at the right or left 90-degree mark on the heading indicator. For the straight in the runway number will be on the nose of the heading indicator. An airport diagram should be studied both before and after the flight.

You should know your home airport better than any others. You should have checkpoints that give straight-in, bases, and 45-degree downwind entries for any runway. You should know all the reportable points in arcs of two, beyond five, ten, and fifteen miles around your airport. You should also have clearly in mind the safe, obstacle, noise abatement, and minimum altitudes for all directions on these arcs. You should become knowledgeable as to the high traffic areas for local aircraft, transient aircraft, helicopters, etc.

The student will be given the radio for making the departure request. The student will be coached again on the return flight as to checkpoints and radio procedures to be used. The procedure for determining the most economical airport arrival was discussed before departure. Hopefully, things work out as planned, if they don't adjustments will need to be made. This process of changing airport arrival plans is an important part of the process.

Once you have landed and are clear of the runway make contact with ATC. Do not proceed until you are cleared and FULLY understand your taxi route. If you require constant taxi assistance, ask for it. Do not taxi into an unknown situation. The way you ask ATC for assistance and your willingness to do so is a sign of competence.

Types of pilots on the radio
Radio Star
Majored in public speaking. Punctuates everything said. Uses all prepositions and adjectives to excess.

Mike Fright
Hesitant speech pattern with long pauses and non-verbal noises.

Mental Telepathy
This pilot leaves out essential information in the believe that ATC has
the required experience to know who he is, where he is, and what he wants to do.

How Abouts
This creative pilot would take over ATC's prerogative of controlling aircraft and offer his "how about' suggestions as to how things could be done his way.

Car 54
This pilot doesn't know where he is. He doesn't know how to tell ATC that he is geographically misplaced. He tells what he sees instead of where he is.

Don't Answer If It's the Wrong Number
Dangerously similar aircraft call signs can be the cause of a disaster. A mix-up is most likely to occur at the worst possible time. The problems' source can be on either end of the process, ATC or pilot. Numbers are a constant source of radio problem because they are used for altitude, airspeed, directions, frequency and x-ponder codes as well as tail numbers. Transposition is the most common occurrence and it is important for the pilot to catch them and correct them as soon as they occur. Similar numbers are easily confused as 300, 330, and 030 when giving headings.

We hear and ATC hears what they expect to hear. It is fairly common the 'hear' what you expect when it is not even said. This is called selective hearing. Careful listening and careful readback is essential. When the situation becomes stressful, cut down on the excess of technology you are scanning. KISS. Keep It Simple Stupid. Under overload you will lose your system of checking the instruments and the checklist. Careful listening to the radio even under stress can ease the communications load. You will pick up when ATC is talking to someone other than yourself. Whenever you have any doubt, call for confirmation and give any readback with your full aircraft identification. Being certain is a great stress reducer.

ATC communications are designed to be a logical flow of information. anything unusual stands out. When possible always read back transmissions. If you get it wrong you will be corrected. If you don't know what to say, stick to approved phraseology. ATC has short attention spans but long memories. Better to ask for help and not need it, than not to ask for help when you need it.

Precision Radio
Just as you need to prepare for your initial call-up to the controller, so does the controller need to prepare for your arrival. Make your call-up from a given checkpoint that will enable you and ATC to arrange a planned arrival.

Certain elements of conversation are assumed and need not be repeated or augmented by additional words. Once contact is established, there is no need to keep addressing ATC by name each time. If you indicate a certain location on the ground or in the air, you should elaborate your intentions only if they are other than to taxi or land. Most of your intentions are very predictable by ATC, just as are most ATC instructions. Always confirm if any ambiguity exists.

It's proper to acknowledge ATC transmissions with the last three alphanumeric of your aircraft. As a student it is better for you to read back all instructions. "Wilco" means that you understand and will comply with the instructions but this is not as assuring to ATC as a complete readback. By common practice a clearance to takeoff may not require an acknowledgment. If you feel that you cannot comfortably comply with an ATC clearance due to lack of knowledge, understanding, or familiarity just say, "Unable". ATC will then try to come up with an alternative. This is a much better option than flying blindly ahead. Unexpected maneuvers in the pattern of an airport are sure to get you an FAA invitation.

The Safety of Radio Flight Operations
--Transmission of a call sign attached to information given using standard terms, technique, and format.
--Receipt of the information by careful listening and an accurate readback or acknowledgment.
--Confirmation of the acknowledgment and readback. Never assume a clearance look for inconsistencies. Learn from mistakes of others.
--At any of these three points a "verify" transmission regarding uncertainties is always appropriate regardless of how busy traffic may be.

Notice Effective 8-30-95
A pilot's readback of taxi instruction with the runway assignment can be considered confirmation of the runway assignment." The foregoing is a new FAA required readback when given a clearance to taxi by ground control or tower. This ruling is effective throughout the United States

Communication Problems
Communication problems tend to appear at the same places. Some, such as similar aircraft identification, altitudes and headings will always be there. Using your aircraft manufacturer as an addition to your call sign is a good preventive for such identification mistakes. Clear enunciation and the elimination of jargon and non-professional phraseology can reduce hear-back and read-back differences. Headings are always given as three digits. The "usual" spring loaded clearance you always get may not be there this time. Don't be too quick to key the radio. You will have plenty of time if you have planned and practiced your radio procedures far enough ahead.

If ATC should give a clearance involving checkpoints or procedures with which you are unfamiliar, state "unfamiliar" immediately and provide the level of information with which you are familiar. The immediateness with which you do this is important since the sooner you provide ATC options the better it will be for you.

Certain verbiage is best avoided as antiquated, inaccurate, excessive, or unnecessary. "Roger" does not mean "yes", "affirmative" means "yes". Certain words should be omitted because they are obvious. "This is", "With you" are excess terms repeating the obvious and should not be used. The more overs, outs, wilcos, no joys, rogers, and with you the more amateurish it sounds in today's communications. Position is always said before altitude. "Feet" is never included in giving altitude. At 2000 feet can be shortened to at 2000 because "feet" is the only possible meaning. "Miles" are not given as part of a distance. Ten miles north should be said as ten north since no other meaning can be implied. "Over" is not given as part of a geographical position. Over Benicia should be said as Benicia, in an airplane you are obviously "over" a given reporting point.

Metathesis errors occur when your tongue can't keep up with your mind. Metathesis means that you have transposed or switched thing around. Very often metathesis will result in a 'spoonerism'. The best way to avoid metathesis problems is to practice aloud what you expect to say in its entirety.

Certain communications require special attention because of the frequency that misunderstanding or noncompliance occurs. "Hold short...", "Cancel...", "Amend..." are most likely to occur at times of reduced anticipation. The unexpected is least likely to be heard. It may not be possible to hear if simultaneous transmissions obliterate everything to a squeal. In early 1992, I and a competent pilot both missed repeated calls to cancel a takeoff. Neither of us heard anything over the radio until out of 500'. Tower tapes, however, recorded the several calls to cancel takeoff. It happens. It is only belatedly that "how" it happened can be figured out. The advent of "data link technology' is supposed to act as a preventative. (Refer to NASA contractor Report 166462.) Later found that volume control knob has less than 1/16th inch turn between hearing and not hearing.

Always listen to the frequency before speaking. Allow time for response to a call before keying the mike. If two microphones are keyed at the same time a whistle on the frequency occurs effectively blocking everybody. Always have prepared what you are going to say and say it with the most economy of words sufficient for clarity. If ATC communicates to you but does not allow sufficient time for your response or acknowledgment, don't. If, at any time, you are unsure of what to do, do not understand an ATC clearance or command, or do not have advised traffic, communicate. If ATC fails to understand or has trouble understanding you, use different terms and words to say the same thing.

If you are new to the airport or area let ATC know on your first call up by using the word "UNfamiliar" with emphasis on the 'UN'. There is a significant difference if what you say includes, "...East Ramp taxi"...from "..taxi East Ramp." If you know the controller is going to give you an advisory or reporting point, include this information in your call up. ATC will adjust their thinking and communications to the situation once you have admitted your lack of familiarity.

If you don't know where you are or what the common checkpoints in use at the airport are, say so. Giving a distance and radial from a VOR is another way. The controller may have you over-fly so he can identify you and set up your arrival. You may request this option instead of having him make the decision for you.

If visibility is a factor, turn on your landing lights and fly so the light is visible from the tower. Include in your radio work that you are "showing a light" until you are identified. It is often difficult for ATC to determine your runway alignment for parallel runways. If another aircraft is in conflict relative to your position don't hesitate to give a progressive call as to your position and altitude. The orientation of your arrival in the early morning or late afternoon may determine whether your or ATC has the visibility advantage. When you are having difficulty seeing or locating let ATC know that you have a problem.

When you are given an advisory while arriving or departing an airport or you hear another aircraft report a location that may be in conflict with your route, don't wait or expect for ATC to tell you about it. They may or may not warn you. Immediately, advise ATC of your position, altitude, and whether you are level, climbing or descending. You are not really talking to ATC. You are advising the other pilot by an indirect communication. This is just one of the flying procedures that makes it possible for a pilot to become an old pilot.

There will be occasions when you do not have the frequency that is most appropriate for your situation. It is important that you know alternate means to acquire appropriate frequencies. This is especially important If you are a VFR pilot without ready access to IFR frequencies, know that any FSS will have access to a frequency that will get you in contact with a facility even if not on the correct frequency.

The student who has insufficient experience, study, or question asking is apt to be unfamiliar with many radio terms. If you should hear a term with which you are unfamiliar, say so. Use the term "other words' in a request such as, "Say again, other words." Words such as abeam, abort, acknowledge, advise, expedite, intentions, option, closed traffic, go ahead, unable and others need to be explained to and understood by the student as they apply to ATC and his operations. CALL 1-(800) USA-AOPA for copy of ABC's of Aviation of 78 confusing aviation terms.

Commuicating problems
The better a pilot is able to tell others about a situation the more likely the situation is not to become the lead in to an accident. Good talkers can overcome Problems where poor talkers let small mistakes create accidents. You can talk your way out of a pre-accident sequence. The use of resource management beyond the cockpit is a vital skill.

I can think back over numerous accidents that need not have happened had the pilot just been able to say the right thing and ask the right questions. Communications in a complex field like flying must be clear and unambiguous to make sure that all involved are working from the same page. Assertiveness is a required attribute ins asking questions, giving directions and seeking help.

Do not get personal. Leave the person you are addressing an opening to make an advisory suggestion. Look for options. You are responsible for getting all available information before taking action.

Years of experience have shown that pilots who are capable of competent communications when in difficulty are more likely to overcome adverse conditions and break the accident sequence. A part of communication is the making of an inquiry as a means for seeking information. Failing to seek information can and has led to the failure to take assertive action. Likewise, it is equally important that you communicate in a clear maner what is known or believed to be true. Resource management goes beyond the cockpit.

When asking for help
1. "I have a problem"
2. State the facts as they seem to be.
3. Suggest an alternative
4. "What would you do?"

Communication Faults
Aircraft radio communications are subject to several kinds of commission and omission errors. A significant part of the problem comes from the overwhelming volume of radio traffic at specific 'rush hour' times. Add to this volume pilot/controller fatigue, inexperience, and distractions. If you ever fly into this situation, go in prepared to talk, listen, and readback. Ask for verification if you have any doubt in understanding, orientation, assignment, or traffic. Use standard communications terms and procedures. Do not rely on ATC to protect you.

Today's flying requires good radios and good radio procedures. Additionally, it helps to frost your radio work with good planning and patience. The constraints of the ATC communications system are being stretched more and more. It only takes one pilot who is incompetent to cause a breakdown. Interestingly, it is not the students under training who are most likely to cause a problem. A pilot under stress is very apt to mis-communicate or step on someone's words. The adrenaline of stress can change words to babble.

Even experienced pilots, myself included, rehearse what I am going to say, And the way I am going to say it. If the frequency is relatively clear I will include a request and my expectations. Otherwise, I keep it brief and concise. Knowing how to adjust to the system in your communications is a skill that the controllers can recognize and appreciate. The value of a given word is inversely proportional to the number of words spoken.

Common mistakes
--Beginning to talk before keying the microphone so first word or so is missed. Talking with out listening for frequency to
clear first.
--A transmission is lost due to interference from another transmission.
--Radio procedures, terminology, phraseology and enunciation
--Confusion due to similar call signs or being unfamiliar with your call sign. Not picking up on the presence of a similar
aircraft call sign.
--Missed call sign so that acknowledgment or readback is not done.
--Controller failure to require acknowledgment or readback. Procedures, readback, hearback
--Message not sent by equipment or individual. Solution by technology
--Receiver not monitoring due to frequency, volume, or distraction. Monitor the frequency a while so you get some idea of
what to expect.
--Message intercepted by wrong receiver. No call sign given.
--Hearing what you expect to hear not what is said. Misinterpretation due to having your mind spring-loaded for what you
expect to hear. Listen, analyze
--Incomplete transmission due to keying, interference, or equipment. Most often pilot fails to compress information into
key words. Requires multiple contacts to complete message.
--Information such as numbers transposed. Accepting a remark regarding traffic at an altitude as an altitude assignment.
The shear number of numbers given over the radio is but a prelude to human mistakes. Letters can be confused.
B,C, D, E, G, P, T, V, Z. Pairs of letters subject to confusion are IY, FS, MN, A, J, K. You hear what you expect
to hear.
--Non-standard terminology.
--Communication too early/late. Delay request for assistance or declaring emergency until it is too late for ATC to help
you.
--English a second-language
--Contextual specific terms (unfamiliar visual checkpoints)
--Jargon or acronyms specific to area or aircraft.
--Giving excess information before establishing contact with a radar facility or FSS. Most common when you just want
information and proceed to make a long story out of it. In such situations just give your identification followed by
"request".
--When getting handoff failing to give altitude reference as, climbing, descending, level.
--Not saying 10,000' as "one zero, ten thousand" and 11,000' as "one one, eleven thousand"
--Failing to advise ATC of flight conditions and fuel remaining.
--ATC does not want a readback of information or 'expect' statements. Stick to the essentials.
--Time is the only commodity that ATC has. They will waste enough time for everybody. They don't need any help from
you.
--Don't abrogate your responsibility for the safety of your flying by talking.

The radio and traffic awareness
All too often you will hear another aircraft or have one pointed out that you can't find but is in apparent conflict with your flight path. It is time be assertive on the radio. Make a call giving your position and altitude to warn both ATC and the other pilot. Be aware, that many pilots report their position as what they can see over the nose and not what is below.
Prior to Taxi
--Listen for clearances given to other aircraft
--Write and draw the ATIS wind direction and velocity
--Determine 'your' crosswind capability
--Read back your taxi clearance entirely
--Seek confirmation of any doubts you may have.
--Don't hesitate to ask for longer or different runway
--Wait for any possible wake turbulence to clear

Departure
--Listen to information related to departing and arriving aircraft.
--Make your departure request so that other aircraft know where to look for you.
--Turn to clear both the final approach and base legs.
--Use your pretakeoff list; Flaps, Fuel, Pump, Prop, Mixture, Transponder, Time (FFPPMTT)
--Don't waste runway behind you.
--Know the local ordinances regarding turns and noise abatement.
--Cruise climb above 100' for cooling.
--Know your options in case of engine problems.
--Make clearing maneuvers while climbing
--Don’t forget to open your flight plan.

Enroute
--Monitor nearby frequencies especially of nearby airports.
--Monitor Flight Watch 122.0 for enroute weather
--1000-foot clean up
--Know the proper way to get into the enroute system.
--Get traffic advisories
--Know what to say to get flight advisories in the radar system.
--Fly airport vicinity routes
--Make PIREPS
--Know the proper way to repeat back a radar handoff.
--Know the proper way to report a handoff
--Know the proper way to respond to an advisory
--Know the proper way to get a two-minute frequency change
--Know how and when to get out of the system.
--Don’t accept a vector that turns you into weather.

Descent
--Monitor local radio frequences
--Keep your engine warm.
--Don't forget to close your flight plan
--Get the ATIS early and plan your call-up point and arrival.
--Use your call-up to include your position, altitude, request and intentions
--Enter the traffic pattern slightly high and wide.
--Don't accept a runway that you see as a problem.
--Readback all runway and hold short assignments

Landing
--Don't leave the runway by turning on another runway until cleared to do so.
--Taxi past the holdbars before stopping and cleaning up the aircraft.
--Read back all tower instructions while on the ground
--Don't leave tower frequency until told to do so.
--Read back all ground instructions while on the ground
--Stay on the yellow lines.
--Listen on ground for inbound and outbound traffic

Emergency location at work
You should know that the General Aviation ELT technology is such that it will be hours before the ELT will actually activate a search. Average time is two hours before search begins. Up to 50 hours before search begins is not unusual. Having a cellular phone is a better option. /Call /afrcc 800/851-3051 for starting an immediate search. ELT's are destroyed or fail to operate 75% of the time. Accident activation rate is only 12% with a 97% false alarm rate. There are 30,000 ELT activations a year. 835

Using the FSS
1. Have a flight plan form
2. Give your flight specifics to specialist using form sequence
3. Use airways and intersections known to the system
4. Make an FSS visit that will help you understand the process
5. Use correct radio procedures:
Callup: "Oakland radio Cessna 1234X listening 122.35", wait 30 + seconds before repeating callup
Body: Aircraft type, position, altitude, and requested information
6. Use AIM 5-1-1 and 7-1-3 for how to get briefing
7. Use Flight Watch on 122.0
Callup: "Oakland Flight Watch Cessna 1234X' Williams VOR" The nationwide frequency is the same.
Always give your location as the closest VOR. This will allow the specialist to select the proper radio to
use for your area.
8. It is wise to be familiar with the DF procedure even though radar has mostly displaced its use.
9. Use and VFR flight plan and know how it works, how to make changes, and how and when to close it.
A bit of terminology:
RCOs, Remote Communications Outlets, are used by FSSs, not by ATC.
RCAGs, Remote Communications Air/Ground Facilities, are used by ARTCCs.
RTRs, Remote/Transmitter/Receivers, are used by Terminal ATC facilities.

Stuck Mike Switch
Every so often an aircraft gets a stuck microphone switch. It is difficult to know when this has happened to you. The warning clue is when you do not get a response to your calls or when there is no communication over the frequency. When this occurs it blocks the entire frequency. The stuck mike switch causes a problem that annoys the rest of the airwave world but not the pilot. The pilot has no way of knowing that he has a problem that is creating a problem for everyone else. Maintain a listing watch. If you don't hear voices where voices should exist start suspecting that you are the problem. You cannot hear anyone when your mike is stuck.

First check the squelch to see if it hisses. Pulling the volume knob in many radios overrides the automatic squelch. Unplug all your mike connections and try the hand held radio or the hand mike. If you happen to fly into a situation where a stuck mike, not yours, is blocking the frequency you will hear a loud whistle. The usual thing to do is to go back to the last frequency used and advise them of the situation and your intentions. A preferred approach might to be going to the next frequency that you expect to use and advise them of the situation and your intentions. In some circumstances, such as airport arrival, this latter method seems better.

Emergency Communications (C,C,C,C)
Climb
For improved transmission/reception, radar coverage and possible Directional Finding (nearly obsolete) even a couple of hundred feet more altitude can make a significant difference. Squawk an appropriate code such as 7700 if an aircraft emergency exists, 7600 if total or partial radio failure occurs.

Communicate
Remain on your present contact frequency. Otherwise, go to 121.5 and communicate as must of the following as
appropriate.
--Emergency say, "Mayday, mayday, mayday"
--An urgency say, "Pan-Pan, Pan-Pan, Pan-pan
--Name of station or "Any station receiving"
--Aircraft type and identification
Confess
--Nature of distress or urgency
--Weather
--Intentions and request
--Position, heading, last known position, time and heading since that position
--Altitude
--Weather conditions
--Fuel condition in hours and minutes
--Number of people aboard
--Any pertinent information
Comply
--Obey ATC
--Ask questions
--Avoid FAR violations if possible
--Violate FARs only after declaring an emergency

Avionics Capability
--Manufacturer makes a difference; some are better than others.
--Installation makes a difference check references
--Maintenance very much depends on the comprehensiveness of the pilot's information and description
--Operation depends on proper voltages, shut down procedures, use of controls, air filters and use of switches.
--Preflight of antennae for security and cleanliness

Cockpit Radio
--A weak battery will cause radio problems.
--Advise avionics shop if any other aircraft maintenance has occurred recently.
--Know how avionics is supposed to work so you can detect problems.
--Pre-set all avionics knobs as part of your preflight. Special attention to volumes and idents
--Radio talk should be all facts without unnecessary words
--Extra words waste time
--Radio time is the currency of the ATC specialist.
--Avoid the minor parts of speech; preopsitions, articles, conjunctions, adjectives and adverbs.
--Operational erros due to radio are most apt to occur when things are slow.
--Avoid, "With you" , "Taking the active", Over (a location), "mile/miles", "feet",
--Listen, think, and talk in that order
--In uncontrolled airport patterns give type of aircraft and omit call sign.

Communications Briefly
--ATIS, ASOS, AWOS frequent updates, phone access, determine VFR/IFR
--Ground gives taxi, tower enroute, IFR to VFR on top clearances
--Tower requires two way com, gives traffic advisory, SVFR, arrival and departure clearances.
--Approach/departure radar control gives IFR pop-ups, traffic advisories, sequencing vectors and restrictions.
--IFR priority over VFR, flight advisories,
--FSS handles weather briefings, flight plans opened and closed, prefiled IFR plans, 122.2 and 121.5
--Flight Watch gives/takes PIREPS and inflight weather advisory. 122.0 nation wide 135.7 high altitude

ASOS vs AWOS
The basic difference between these two automated weather systems is that:
--ASOS is a product of a National Weather Service (NWS), Department of Defense (DoD) and Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) joint venture. ASOS is comprised of a standard suite of weather sensors (with several exceptions) all procured from one contractor.
--AWOS is a suite of weather sensors of many different configurations that were either procured by the FAA or purchased by individuals, groups, airports, etc. that are required to meet FAA standards to be able to report weather parameters. AWOSs can be purchased from three different contractors in the United States.

Talking to Flight Watch
If you talk to EFAS (Flight Watch) while airborne, you will get true winds, not magnetic. That seems to be the only exception to the airborne is magnetic rule.

Talking the New Talk
According to CAP413 (The UK CAA RT manual)
Aircraft call signs, altimeter settings, flight levels (except FL100) , headings, wind speeds/directions, transponder codes and frequencies, each digit shall be transmitted separately, examples:

BAW246 SPEEDBIRD TOO FOWER SIX
FL 100 FLIGHT LEVEL WUN HUNDRED
FL 180 FLIGHT LEVEL WUN AIT ZERO
150 degrees WUN FIFE ZERO DEGREES
18 knots WUN AIT KNOTS
122.1 WUN TOO TOO DAYSEEMAL WUN
Squawk 6500 SQUAWK SIX FIFE ZERO ZERO

All numbers used in the transmissions of altitude, height, cloud height, visibility, runway visual range information that contain whole hundreds and whole thousands shall be transmitted by pronouncing each digit in the number of hundreds or thousands followed by the word HUNDRED or TOUSAND as appropriate. Combinations of thousands and whole hundreds shall be transmitted by pronouncing each digit in the number of thousands followed by the word TOUSAND and the number of hundreds followed by the word HUNDRED; examples:

10 WUN ZERO
100 WUN HUNDRED
2 500 TWO TOUSAND FIFE HUNDRED
11 000 ONE ONE TOUSAND
25 000 TOO FIFE TOUSAND

About Closing Your Flight Plan
--FAA policy stresses the use of flight plans for all flights over 50 miles.
--Procedure followed when flight plan not closed:
--Over due when 30-minutes late for ETA.
--Search and rescue begins …
--Destination FSS sends a QALO (request for info) to every ATC facility along route
--Destination FSS sends (INREQ) information request to all ATC facilities
--AFRCC (Air Force Rescue Coordination Canter is notified.

--With no INFO, and 60 more minutes…
--Destination sends an alert notice (ALNOT) to ATC facilities within 50 miles of route.
--All facilities do communications search of every airport
--This starts visual search of airport called a ramp search.
--All aircraft in the area are requested to monitor 12l1.5 for ELT transmissions.
--An hour after the ALNOT the Air Force takes charge of the search with use of Civil Air Patrol.
--Expect to be sent the bill for the search costs.

Radio Use During Semi-Emergency
There has been a small but important change to the "Aeronautical Information Manual" (AIM), designed to help pilots communicate an urgent situation without declaring an emergency. When in contact with ATC, pilots can use the word "immediately" to avoid an imminent situation. The change was based on the analysis of accidents by ASF and the FAA. Weather situations such as icing, heading changes near thunderstorms, and weather where an IFR clearance is needed quickly may all qualify for some extra ATC consideration. ASF recommends using the "I-word" as required, but realize that by then you may have let things go too far. ASF also recommends that pilots file a NASA ASRS report so that others can learn.

If you've ever needed to get down on the ground fast but the situation wasn't dire enough to declare an
emergency, now you have an option. AOPA reports a small change in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) that allows pilots to get the message across without scrambling fire trucks and the "Live at 5" news vans. Now, you can use the word "immediately" to communicate an urgent desire. Situations that could fall under the umbrella of "immediately" might include needing a higher or lower altitude to escape icing, or encountering IMC and needing a clearance.

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

Official Guide to Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures

U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Aviation Administration

Section 2 - Radio Communications Phraseology and Techniques

4-2-1. GENERAL

a. Radio communications are a critical link in the ATC system. The link can be a strong bond between pilot and controller or it can be broken with surprising speed and disastrous results. Discussion herein provides basic procedures for new pilots and also highlights safe operating concepts for all pilots.

b. The single, most important thought in pilot/controller communications is understanding. It is essential, therefore, that pilots acknowledge each radio communication with ATC by using the appropriate aircraft call sign. Brevity is important, and contacts should be kept as brief as possible, but controllers must know what you want to do before they can properly carry out their control duties. And you, the pilot, must know exactly what the controller wants you to do. Since concise phraseology may not always be adequate, use whatever words are necessary to get your message across. Pilots are to maintain vigilance in monitoring air traffic control radio communications frequencies for potential traffic conflicts with their aircraft especially when operating on an active runway and/or when conducting a final approach to landing.

c. All pilots will find the Pilot/Controller Glossary very helpful in learning what certain words or phrases mean. Good phraseology enhances safety and is the mark of a professional pilot. Jargon, chatter, and "CB" slang have no place in ATC communications. The Pilot/Controller Glossary is the same glossary used in FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control. We recommend that it be studied and reviewed from time to time to sharpen your communication skills.

4-2-2. RADIO TECHNIQUE

a. LISTEN before you transmit. Many times you can get the information you want through ATIS or by monitoring the frequency. Except for a few situations where some frequency overlap occurs, if you hear someone else talking, the keying of your transmitter will be futile and you will probably jam their receivers causing them to repeat their call. If you have just changed frequencies, pause, listen, and make sure the frequency is clear.

b. THINK before keying your transmitter. Know what you want to say and if it is lengthy; for example, a flight plan or IFR position report, jot it down.

c. The microphone should be very close to your lips and after pressing the mike button, a slight pause may be necessary to be sure the first word is transmitted. Speak in a normal, conversational tone.

d. When you release the button, wait a few seconds before calling again. The controller or FSS specialist may be jotting down your number, looking for your flight plan, transmitting on a different frequency, or selecting the transmitter for your frequency.

e. Be alert to the sounds OR THE LACK OF SOUNDS in your receiver. Check your volume, recheck your frequency, and MAKE SURE THAT YOUR MICROPHONE IS NOT STUCK in the transmit position. Frequency blockage can, and has, occurred for extended periods of time due to unintentional transmitter operation. This type of interference is commonly referred to as a "stuck mike," and controllers may refer to it in this manner when attempting to assign an alternate frequency. If the assigned frequency is completely blocked by this type of interference, use the procedures described for enroute IFR radio frequency outage to establish or reestablish communications with ATC.

f. Be sure that you are within the performance range of your radio equipment and the ground station equipment. Remote radio sites do not always transmit and receive on all of a facility's available frequencies, particularly with regard to VOR sites where you can hear but not reach a ground station's receiver. Remember that higher altitudes increase the range of VHF "line-of-sight" communications.

4-2-3. CONTACT PROCEDURES

a. Initial Contact -

1. The terms initial contact or initial callup means the first radio call you make to a given facility or the first call to a different controller or FSS specialist within a facility. Use the following format:

(a) Name of the facility being called;

(b) Your FULL aircraft identification as filed in the flight plan or as discussed under Aircraft Call Signs below;

(d) the word "Over" if required.

EXAMPLES:

"NEW YORK RADIO, MOONEY THREE ONE ONE ECHO."

"COLUMBIA GROUND, CESSNA THREE ONE SIX ZERO FOXTROT, IFR MEMPHIS."

"MIAMI CENTER, BARON FIVE SIX THREE HOTEL, REQUEST VFR TRAFFIC ADVISORIES."

2. Many FSSs are equipped with RCOs and can transmit on the same frequency at more than one location. The frequencies available at specific locations are indicated on charts above FSS communications boxes. To enable the specialist to utilize the correct transmitter, advise the location and the frequency on which you expect a reply.

EXAMPLE:

St. Louis FSS can transmit on frequency 122.3 at either Farmington, MO or Decatur, IL. If you are in the vicinity of Decatur, your callup should be "SAINT LOUIS RADIO, PIPER SIX NINER SIX YANKEE, RECEIVING DECATUR ONE TWO TWO POINT THREE."

3. If radio reception is reasonably assured, inclusion of your request, your position or altitude, and the phrase "(ATIS) Information Charlie received" in the initial contact helps decrease radio frequency congestion. Use discretion; do not overload the controller with information unneeded or superfluous. If you do not get a response from the ground station, recheck your radios or use another transmitter, but keep the next contact short.

EXAMPLE:

"ATLANTA CENTER, DUKE FOUR ONE ROMEO, REQUEST VFR TRAFFIC ADVISORIES, TWENTY NORTHWEST ROME, SEVEN THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED, OVER."

b. Initial Contact When your Transmitting and Receiving Frequencies are Different -

1. If you are attempting to establish contact with a ground station and you are receiving on a different frequency than that transmitted, indicate the VOR name or the frequency on which you expect a reply. Most FSSs and control facilities can transmit on several VOR stations in the area. Use the appropriate FSS call sign as indicated on charts.

EXAMPLE:

New York FSS transmits on the Kennedy, the Hampton, and the Calverton VORTACs. If you are in the Calverton area, your callup should be "NEW YORK RADIO, CESSNA THREE ONE SIX ZERO FOXTROT, RECEIVING CALVERTON VOR, OVER."

2. If the chart indicates FSS frequencies above the VORTAC or in the FSS communications boxes, transmit or receive on those frequencies nearest your location.

3. When unable to establish contact and you wish to call ANY ground station, use the phrase "ANY RADIO (tower) (station), GIVE CESSNA THREE ONE SIX ZERO FOXTROT A CALL ON (frequency) OR (VOR)." If an emergency exists or you need assistance, so state.

c. Subsequent Contacts and Responses to Callup from a Ground Facility - Use the same format as used for the initial contact except you should state your message or request with the callup in one transmission. The ground station name and the word "Over" may be omitted if the message requires an obvious reply and there is no possibility for misunderstandings. You should acknowledge all callups or clearances unless the controller or FSS specialist advises otherwise. There are some occasions when controllers must issue time critical instructions to other aircraft, and they may be in a position to observe your response, either visually or on radar. If the situation demands your response, take appropriate action or immediately advise the facility of any problem. Acknowledge with your aircraft identification, either at the beginning or at the end of your transmission, and one of the words "Wilco," "Roger," "Affirmative," "Negative," or other appropriate remarks; e.g., "PIPER TWO ONE FOUR LIMA, ROGER." If you have been receiving services; e.g., VFR traffic advisories and you are leaving the area or changing frequencies, advise the ATC facility and terminate contact.

d. Acknowledgement of Frequency Changes -

1. When advised by ATC to change frequencies, acknowledge the instruction. If you select the new frequency without an acknowledgement, the controller's workload is increased because there is no way of knowing whether you received the instruction or have had radio communications failure.

2. At times, a controller/specialist may be working a sector with multiple frequency assignments. In order to eliminate unnecessary verbiage and to free the controller/specialist for higher priority transmissions, the controller/specialist may request the pilot "(Identification), change to my frequency 123.4." This phrase should alert the pilot that the controller/specialist is only changing frequencies, not controller/specialist, and that initial callup phraseology may be abbreviated.

EXAMPLE:

"UNITED TWO TWENTY-TWO ON ONE TWO THREE POINT FOUR." OR "ONE TWO THREE POINT FOUR, UNITED TWO TWENTY-TWO."

e. Compliance with Frequency Changes - When instructed by ATC to change frequencies, select the new frequency as soon as possible unless instructed to make the change at a specific time, fix, or altitude. A delay in making the change could result in an untimely receipt of important information. If you are instructed to make the frequency change at a specific time, fix, or altitude, monitor the frequency you are on until reaching the specified time, fix, or altitudes unless instructed otherwise by ATC.

REFERENCE - ARTCC Communications, paragraph 5-3-1.

4-2-4. AIRCRAFT CALL SIGNS

a. Precautions in the Use of Call Signs -

1. Improper use of call signs can result in pilots executing a clearance intended for another aircraft. Call signs should NEVER BE ABBREVIATED ON AN INITIAL CONTACT OR AT ANY TIME WHEN OTHER AIRCRAFT CALL SIGNS HAVE SIMILAR NUMBERS/SOUNDS OR IDENTICAL LETTERS/NUMBER; for example, Cessna 6132F, Cessna 1622F, Baron 123F, Cherokee 7732F, etc.

EXAMPLE:

Assume that a controller issues an approach clearance to an aircraft at the bottom of a holding stack and an aircraft with a similar call sign (at the top of the stack) acknowledges the clearance with the last two or three numbers of the aircraft's call sign. If the aircraft at the bottom of the stack did not hear the clearance and intervene, flight safety would be affected, and there would be no reason for either the controller or pilot to suspect that anything is wrong. This kind of "human factors" error can strike swiftly and is extremely difficult to rectify.

2. Pilots, therefore, must be certain that aircraft identification is complete and clearly identified before taking action on an ATC clearance. ATC specialists will not abbreviate call signs of air carrier or other civil aircraft having authorized call signs. ATC specialists may initiate abbreviated call signs of other aircraft by using the PREFIX AND THE LAST THREE DIGITS/LETTERS of the aircraft identification after communications are established. The pilot may use the abbreviated call sign in subsequent contacts with the ATC specialist. When aware of similar/identical call signs, ATC specialists will take action to minimize errors by emphasizing certain numbers/letters, by repeating the entire call sign, by repeating the prefix, or by asking pilots to use a different call sign temporarily. Pilots should use the phrase "VERIFY CLEARANCE FOR (your complete call sign)" if doubt exists concerning proper identity.

3. Civil aircraft pilots should state the aircraft type, model or manufacturer's name, followed by the digits/letters of the registration number. When the aircraft manufacturer's name or model is stated, the prefix "N" is dropped; for example, Aztec Two Four Six Four Alfa.

EXAMPLES:

BONANZA SIX FIVE FIVE GOLF.

BREEZY SIX ONE THREE ROMEO EXPERIMENTAL (omit "Experimental" after initial contact).

4. Air Taxi or other commercial operators NOT having FAA authorized call signs should prefix their normal identification with the phonetic word "Tango."

EXAMPLE:

TANGO AZTEC TWO FOUR SIX FOUR ALFA.

5. Air carriers and commuter air carriers having FAA authorized call signs should identify themselves by stating the complete call sign (using group form for the numbers) and the word "heavy" if appropriate.

EXAMPLES:

UNITED TWENTY-FIVE HEAVY.

MIDWEST COMMUTER SEVEN ELEVEN.

6. Military aircraft use a variety of systems including serial numbers, word call signs, and combinations of letters/numbers. Examples include Army Copter 48931, Air Force 61782, MAC 31792, Pat 157, Air Evac 17652, Navy Golf Alfa Kilo 21, Marine 4 Charlie 36, etc.

b. Air Ambulance Flights -

Because of the priority afforded air ambulance flights in the ATC system, extreme discretion is necessary when using the term "LIFEGUARD." It is only intended for those missions of an urgent medical nature and to be utilized only for that portion of the flight requiring expeditious handling. When requested by the pilot, necessary notification to expedite ground handling of patients, etc., is provided by ATC; however, when possible, this information should be passed in advance through non-ATC communications systems.

1. Civilian air ambulance flights responding to medical emergencies (first call to an accident scene, carrying patients, organ donors, organs, or other urgently needed lifesaving medical material) will be expedited by ATC when necessary. When expeditious handling is necessary, add the word "LIFEGUARD" in the remarks section of the flight plan. In radio communications, use the call sign "LIFEGUARD" followed by the aircraft registration letters/numbers.

2. Similar provisions have been made for the use of "AIR EVAC" and "MED EVAC" by military air ambulance flights, except that these military flights will receive priority handling only when specifically requested.

EXAMPLE:

LIFEGUARD TWO SIX FOUR SIX.

3. Air carrier and air taxi flights responding to medical emergencies will also be expedited by ATC when necessary. The nature of these medical emergency flights usually concerns the transportation of urgently needed lifesaving medical materials or vital organs. IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT THE COMPANY/PILOT DETERMINE, BY THE NATURE/URGENCY OF THE SPECIFIC MEDICAL CARGO, IF PRIORITY ATC ASSISTANCE IS REQUIRED. Pilots shall ensure that the word "LIFEGUARD" is included in the remarks section of the flight plan and use the call sign "LIFEGUARD" followed by the company name and flight number for all transmissions when expeditious handling is required. It is important for ATC to be aware of "LIFEGUARD" status, and it is the pilot's responsibility to ensure that this information is provided to ATC.

EXAMPLE:

LIFEGUARD DELTA THIRTY-SEVEN.

c. Student Pilots Radio Identification -

1. The FAA desires to help student pilots in acquiring sufficient practical experience in the environment in which they will be required to operate. To receive additional assistance while operating in areas of concentrated air traffic, student pilots need only identify themselves as a student pilot during their initial call to an FAA radio facility.

EXAMPLE:

DAYTON TOWER, THIS IS FLEETWING ONE TWO THREE FOUR, STUDENT PILOT.

2. This special identification will alert FAA ATC personnel and enable them to provide student pilots with such extra assistance and consideration as they may need. This procedure is not mandatory.

4-2-5. DESCRIPTION OF INTERCHANGE OR LEASED AIRCRAFT

a. Controllers issue traffic information based on familiarity with airline equipment and color/markings. When an air carrier dispatches a flight using another company's equipment and the pilot does not advise the terminal ATC facility, the possible confusion in aircraft identification can compromise safety.

b. Pilots flying an "interchange" or "leased" aircraft not bearing the colors/markings of the company operating the aircraft should inform the terminal ATC facility on first contact the name of the operating company and trip number, followed by the company name as displayed on the aircraft, and aircraft type.

EXAMPLE:

AIR CAL THREE ELEVEN, UNITED (INTERCHANGE/LEASE), BOEING SEVEN TWO SEVEN.

4-2-6. GROUND STATION CALL SIGNS

Pilots, when calling a ground station, should begin with the name of the facility being called followed by the type of the facility being called as indicated in Table 4-2-1.

                                Table 4-2-1
   ----------------------------------------------------------------
               Facility                          Call Sign
   ---------------------------------    --------------------------- 
   Airport UNICOM                       "Shannon UNICOM"
   FAA Flight Service Station           "Chicago Radio"
   FAA Flight Service Station           "Seattle Flight Watch"
      (Enroute Flight Advisory
      Service (Weather))
   Airport Traffic Control Tower        "Augusta Tower"
   Clearance Delivery Position (IFR)    "Dallas Clearance Delivery"
   Ground Control Position in Tower     "Miami Ground"
   Radar or Nonradar Approach           "Oklahoma City Approach"
      Control Position
   Radar Departure Control Position     "St. Louis Departure"
   FAA Air Route Traffic Control Center "Washington Center"
   ----------------------------------------------------------------

4-2-7. PHONETIC ALPHABET

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) phonetic alphabet is used by FAA personnel when communications conditions are such that the information cannot be readily received without their use. ATC facilities may also request pilots to use phonetic letter equivalents when aircraft with similar sounding identifications are receiving communications on the same frequency. Pilots should use the phonetic alphabet when identifying their aircraft during initial contact with air traffic control facilities. Additionally, use the phonetic equivalents for single letters and to spell out groups of letters or difficult words during adverse communications conditions. (See Table 4-2-2)

                          Table 4-2-2
                 Phonetic Alphabet / Morse Code
   ------------------------------------------------------------------ 
   Character  Morse Code  Telephony    Phonic (Pronunciation)
   ------------------------------------------------------------------ 
       A       .-          Alfa       (AL-FAH)
       B       -...        Bravo      (BRAH-VOH)
       C       -.-.        Charlie    (CHAR-LEE) or (SHAR-LEE)
       D       -..         Delta      (DELL-TA)
       E       .           Echo       (ECK-OH)
       F       ..-.        Foxtrot    (FOKS-TROT)
       G       --.         Golf       (GOLF)
       H       ....        Hotel      (HOH-TEL)
       I       ..          India      (IN-DEE-AH)
       J       .---        Juliett    (JEW-LEE-ETT)
       K       -.-         Kilo       (KEY-LOH)
       L       .-..        Lima       (LEE-MAH)
       M       --          Mike       (MIKE)
       N       -.          November   (NO-VEM-BER)
       O       ---         Oscar      (OSS-CAH)
       P       .--.        Papa       (PAH-PAH)
       Q       --.-        Quebec     (KEH-BECK)
       R       .-.         Romeo      (ROW-ME-OH)
       S       ...         Sierra     (SEE-AIR-RAH)
       T       -           Tango      (TANG-GO)
       U       ..-         Uniform    (YOU-NEE-FORM) or (OO-NEE-FORM)
       V       ...-        Victor     (VIK-TAH)
       W       .--         Whiskey    (WIS-KEY)
       X       -..-        X-ray      (ECKS-RAY)
       Y       -.--        Yankee     (YANG-KEY)
       Z       --..        Zulu       (ZOO-LOO)
       1       .----       One        (WUN)
       2       ..---       Two        (TOO)
       3       ...--       Three      (TREE)
       4       ....-       Four       (FOW-ER)
       5       .....       Five       (FIFE)
       6       -....       Six        (SIX)
       7       --...       Seven      (SEV-EN)
       8       ---..       Eight      (AIT)
       9       ----.       Nine       (NIN-ER)
       0       -----       Zero       (ZEE-RO)
    -----------------------------------------------------------------

4-2-8. FIGURES

a. Figures indicating hundreds and thousands in round number, as for ceiling heights, and upper wind levels up to 9,900 shall be spoken in accordance with the following:

EXAMPLE:

500 - FIVE HUNDRED

EXAMPLE:

4,500 - FOUR THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED

b. Numbers above 9,900 shall be spoken by separating the digits preceding the word "thousand."

EXAMPLE:

10,000 - ONE ZERO THOUSAND

EXAMPLE:

13,500 - ONE THREE THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED

c. Transmit airway or jet route numbers as follows:

EXAMPLE:

V12 - VICTOR TWELVE

EXAMPLE:

J533 - J FIVE THIRTY-THREE

d. All other numbers shall be transmitted by pronouncing each digit.

EXAMPLE:

10 - ONE ZERO

e. When a radio frequency contains a decimal point, the decimal point is spoken as "POINT."

EXAMPLE:

122.1 - ONE TWO TWO POINT ONE

NOTE - ICAO Procedures require the decimal point be spoken as "DECIMAL," and FAA will honor such usage by military aircraft and all other aircraft required to use ICAO Procedures.

4-2-9. ALTITUDES AND FLIGHT LEVELS

a. Up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL, state the separate digits of the thousands plus the hundreds if appropriate.

EXAMPLE:

12,000 - ONE TWO THOUSAND

EXAMPLE:

12,500 - ONE TWO THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED

b. At and above 18,000 feet MSL (FL 180), state the words "flight level" followed by the separate digits of the flight level.

EXAMPLE:

190 - FLIGHT LEVEL ONE NINER ZERO

275 - FLIGHT LEVEL TWO SEVEN FIVE

4-2-10. DIRECTIONS

The three digits of bearing, course, heading, or wind direction should always be magnetic. The word "true" must be added when it applies.

EXAMPLE:

(Magnetic course) 005 - ZERO ZERO FIVE

(True course) 050 - ZERO FIVE ZERO TRUE

(Magnetic bearing) 360 - THREE SIX ZERO

(Magnetic heading) 100 - HEADING ONE ZERO ZERO

(Wind direction) 220 - WIND TWO TWO ZERO

4-2-11. SPEEDS

The separate digits of the speed followed by the word "KNOTS." Except, controllers may omit the word "KNOTS" when using speed adjustment procedures; for example, "REDUCE/INCREASE SPEED TO TWO FIVE ZERO."

EXAMPLES:

(Table 4-40[1])

(Speed) 250 - TWO FIVE ZERO KNOTS

(Speed) 190 - ONE NINER ZERO KNOTS

The separate digits of the Mach number preceded by "MACH."

EXAMPLES:

(Table 4-40[2])

(Mach number) 1.5 - MACH ONE POINT FIVE

(Mach number) 0.64 - MACH POINT SIX FOUR

(Mach number) 0.7 - MACH POINT SEVEN

4-2-12. TIME

a. FAA uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) for all operations. The word "local" or the time zone equivalent shall be used to denote local when local time is given during radio and telephone communications. The term "Zulu" may be used to denote UTC.

EXAMPLE:

0920 UTC - ZERO NINER TWO ZERO ZULU

ZERO ONE TWO ZERO PACIFIC OR LOCAL,

OR ONE TWENTY AM

b. To Convert from Standard Time to Coordinated Universal Time:

                 Table 4-2-3
   Standard Time to Coordinated Universal Time

      Eastern Standard Time    Add 5 hours
      Central Standard Time    Add 6 hours
      Mountain Standard Time   Add 7 hours
      Pacific Standard Time    Add 8 hours
      Alaska Standard Time     Add 9 hours
      Hawaii Standard Time     Add 10 hours

   NOTE - For Daylight Time, subtract 1 hour.

c. A reference may be made to local daylight or standard time utilizing the 24-hour clock system. The hour is indicated by the first two figures and the minutes by the last two figures.

EXAMPLE:

0000 - ZERO ZERO ZERO ZERO

0920 - ZERO NINER TWO ZERO

d. Time may be stated in minutes only (two figures) in radio telephone communications when no misunderstanding is likely to occur.

e. Current time in use at a station is stated in the nearest quarter minute in order that pilots may use this information for time checks. Fractions of a quarter minute less than 8 seconds are stated as the preceding quarter minute; fractions of a quarter minute of 8 seconds or more are stated as the succeeding quarter minute.

EXAMPLE:

0929:05 - TIME, ZERO NINER TWO NINER

0929:10 - TIME, ZERO NINER TWO NINER AND ONE-QUARTER

4-2-13. COMMUNICATIONS WITH TOWER WHEN AIRCRAFT TRANSMITTER OR RECEIVER OR BOTH ARE INOPERATIVE

a. Arriving Aircraft -

1. Receiver inoperative:

(a) If you have reason to believe your receiver is inoperative, remain outside or above the Class D surface area until the direction and flow of traffic has been determined; then, advise the tower of your type aircraft, position, altitude, intention to land, and request that you be controlled with light signals.

REFERENCE - Traffic Control Light Signals, paragraph 4-3-13.

(b) When you are approximately 3 to 5 miles from the airport, advise the tower of your position and join the airport traffic pattern. From this point on, watch the tower for light signals. Thereafter, if a complete pattern is made, transmit your position downwind and/or turning base leg.

2. Transmitter inoperative: Remain outside or above the Class D surface area until the direction and flow of traffic has been determined; then, join the airport traffic pattern. Monitor the primary local control frequency as depicted on Sectional Charts for landing or traffic information, and look for a light signal which may be addresse